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• Work clothes have changed a lot over the years.
• Style in general has become less formal since the 1950s.
• Take a look below at how office workers have dressed across the decades.

Why don't people dress up for work anymore?

It's a question that's no doubt popped into the minds of many a workplace fashionista — not to mention anyone French cuffs-deep into a Mad Men binge.

The short answer is... it's complicated. Even today, degrees of sartorial formality tend to vary between industries, companies, and roles. And workplace styles can change day-to-day on an individual basis, too. Even if you usually don a business casual outfit, chances are, you'll probably dress up for your career-making pitch to the boardroom.

Basically, fashion's an ever-evolving, context-specific, and highly-personal thing.

But what accounts for the fact that many industries and companies have been slouching toward casualness since the 1970s?

To find out how — and why — workplace dress has transformed in this century, let's take a look back through time.

In the middle of the 20th century, many offices expected their employees to adhere to what modern workers would consider a formal look.

Source: The Atlantic, Psychology Today

Companies back then were more 'process-oriented' than the 'results-oriented' organizations of today, according to The Atlantic.

Source: The Atlantic, Psychology Today

Results-oriented organizations care about... well, results. According to Psychology Today, process-oriented companies are 'concerned with how that success occurs.'

Source: The Atlantic, Psychology Today

As far as workplace fashion is concerned, that means that nowadays, many employers are thrilled as long as you're getting your work done. They care a little less about what you're wearing while completing said work.

Source: The Atlantic, Psychology Today

Meanwhile, employees in the 1950s were largely expected to dress a specific way in a professional setting.

Source: The Atlantic, Psychology Today

So what exactly did our buttoned-up office forebearers wear to work in the 1950s and early 1960s?

Source: The Atlantic

Generally speaking, men sported suits, ties, and overcoats. 'Dark suits, white shirts, dark ties, and white pocket squares didn't just dominate — they were practically a requirement in business,' according to GQ.

Source: The Atlantic, GQ

And don't forget hats. Hats were a must for men on the go. 'Regardless of what he wore, a properly dressed man in the 1950s still had to don a hat,' William H. Young and Nancy K. Young wrote in the book 'The 1950s.'

Source: 'The 1950s'

Over the course of the decade, men's suits morphed from looser fits to a 'skinny tailored fit style,' according to the historical fashion blog Vintage Dancer.

Source: Esquire, Vintage Dancer

Meanwhile, the Youngs wrote that career women typically wore 'tailored wool suits over silk blouses.' Dresses were also an option for the office. The standard look was completed with hosiery or stockings, as well as shoes with 'thin stiletto heels.'

Source: Mashable, 'The 1950s,' Mic

Of course, while the 1950s are often remembered as a time of strict and widespread cultural conformity, not all workplaces were so exacting about dress codes.

Source: Mashable, 'The 1950s'

Like today, a person's age, role, place of work, and personal preferences would influence how they dressed on the job.

Source: Mashable, 'The 1950s'

And, while the following decade may have brought about cultural transformation, social upheaval, and hippies, significant changes to workplace fashion didn't happen overnight.

Source: Time

The beginning of the 1960s saw many Americans starting to take cues from the White House on how to dress. The Kennedy administration — with its preppy First Couple — ended up influencing the fashion of the time.

Source: Esquire, Los Angeles Times, Time

Fashion for men has traditionally been more conservative and less subject to change — especially when it comes to business attire. But suits did continue to slim out throughout the decade.

Source: Mashable, Vintage Dancer

Source: Mashable, Vintage Dancer

Over the course of the 1960s, women's office fashion would undergo both subtle and obvious changes. Lola Cherson, who worked in advertising in the 1960s, told The Atlantic, 'Back then, we wore nice dresses.'

Source: The Atlantic

She added that women would constantly check to ensure that the seams in their stockings were straight. Trousers in the workplace were still rare for women, although they were increasingly popular outside of work.

Source: 'Fashion Fads Through American History,' 'The 1960s,' The Atlantic

One fashion trend in particular took on special significance for career-oriented women. Pussy-bow blouses were viewed as a fitting equivalent to the traditional masculine suit-and-tie look. As outgoing Hewlett-Packard CEO Meg Whitman told PBS, 'It was our attempt to be feminine but fit into what was then a male world.'

Source: Mic, PBS

The 1960s may have seen some major shifts, but the rollback of formality really began to snowball in the 1970s, as groovy fashions took hold across the country.

Sounds: The New York Times

Of course, the prevailing dress code of a specific workplace was still largely dependent on the nature of the workplace itself. You'd notice major differences between, say, how people dressed in a newsroom and how people dressed in a bank.

Sounds: The New York Times, Business Insider

But the transformation was still seismic, at least in some industries. Longer hair gradually became more acceptable on men...

Source: Hair-and-Makeup.com

Source: Hair-and-Makeup.com

Esquire described the 1970s as the advent of 'the peacock revolution' and 'loose-collared culture' for working men.

Source: Esquire

Meanwhile, more and more women began swapping out their skirts and dresses for pants in the workplace.

Source: Stuff Mom Never Told You

Many employers continued to implement dress codes, but according to The Atlantic, 'often-ignored infractions eroded the sanctity of any top-down policy.'

Source: Mashable, The Atlantic

As a result, style in the workplace began to reflect the everyday, far out fashions people gravitated toward.

Source: Mashable, The Atlantic

The 1980s took workplace fashion trends to several tubular new extremes; an unsurprising development, given the decade's penchant for big perms, sequin-encrusted garments, and bright colors.

Source: Newsweek, Harper's Bazaar

In the world of suits, broad-shoulders, bold patterns, and 'power ties' ruled the day, according to Esquire.

Source: Esquire

Women in the workplace opted for what Newsweek described as an 'exaggerated masculine style of dress,' famously epitomized by shoulder pads. Towering high heels also allowed women to attempt to make up for any height differences with their male colleagues.

Source: The Atlantic, Newsweek, The Atlantic

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The 'power dressing' trend for women carried over into the 1990s, but 'the power suit started relaxing,' according to Mic. Pantsuits became increasingly popular, as did low-heeled shoes.

Source: Mic

Another trend that carried over from the 1980s was the rise of business casual. The Atlantic defined the initial iteration of the style as a combination of 'khaki pants, sensible shoes, and button-down collared shirts,' and marked Silicon Valley as its birthplace.

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Source: The Atlantic

Silicon Valley proved to be the perfect breeding ground for the casual revolution, according to The Atlantic, given its interest in 'discarding norms and celebrating rule-breaking.' The look went mainstream in the 1990s.

Source: The Atlantic

For professionals who stuck with a more formal look, Esquire said nineties suits started out with a 'loose, baggy silhouette' that transitioned into 'a slimmer suit profile' by the early 2000s.

Source: Esquire, The Atlantic

And, as always, workplace dress codes continued to fracture across industries, in terms of formality. Throughout the 2000s, 'corporate image and employees' desires helped define who went casual and when,' according to The Atlantic.

Source: Esquire, The Atlantic

Today, the fields of finance, law, and accounting tend to require conservative and traditional modes of dress...

Source: Business Insider

... while creative and tech-oriented professions are often more flexible. But, either way, it's no longer unthinkable to see a t-shirt or two in the office.

Source: Business Insider

And, with 70% of professionals telecommuting at least once a week according to global workplace corporation IWG, employees are set to only continue to challenge the boundaries of work dress. After all, no one's going to see that you're wearing pajama bottoms on a Skype call.

Source: FlexJobs, Cision

For you

Swaddling is an age-old practice of wrapping infants in blankets or similar cloths so that movement of the limbs is tightly restricted. Swaddling bands were often used to further restrict the infant. Swaddling fell out of favor in the 17th century.

Some authors are of the opinion that swaddling is becoming popular again, although medical and psychological opinion on the effects of swaddling is divided. Some modern medical studies indicate that swaddling helps babies fall asleep and to remain asleep and helps to keep the baby in a supine position, which lowers the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).^[1] However, another study indicated that swaddling increased the risk of SIDS.^[2] Additionally, emerging evidence is showing that certain swaddling techniques may increase the risk of developmental dysplasia of the hip.^[3]

Origin and history[edit]

Several authors presume that swaddling was invented in the paleolithic period.^[4][5][6]The earliest depictions of swaddled babies are votive offerings and grave goods from Crete and Cyprus, 4000 to 4500 years old.

Votive statuettes have been found in the tombs of Ancient Greek and Roman women who died in childbirth, displaying babies in swaddling clothes. In shrines dedicated to Amphiaraus, models representing babies wrapped in swaddling clothes have been excavated. Apparently, these were frequently given as thank-offerings by anxious mothers when their infants had recovered from sickness.^[7]

Probably the most famous record of swaddling is found in the New Testament concerning the birth of Jesus in Luke 2:6–2:7:

And so it was, that, while they were there, the days were accomplished that she should be delivered. And she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes and laid him in a manger; because there was no room for them in the inn.

Swaddling clothes described in the Bible consisted of a cloth tied together by bandage-like strips. After an infant was born, the umbilical cord was cut and tied, and then the baby was washed, rubbed with salt and oil, and wrapped with strips of cloth. These strips kept the newborn child warm and also ensured that the child's limbs would grow straight. Ezekiel 16:4 describes Israel as unswaddled, a metaphor for abandonment.^[8]

During Tudor times, swaddling involved wrapping the new baby in linen bands from head to foot to ensure the baby would grow up without physical deformity. A stay band would be attached to the forehead and the shoulders to secure the head. Babies would be swaddled like this until about 8 or 9 months.^[9]

The Swiss surgeon Felix Würtz (approx. 1500 to approx. 1598) was the first who criticized aspects of swaddling openly.^[10]

I also saw right and straight children created by God and born into this world by humans, who became nevertheless bent and lame men, who never got straight and healthy thighs. (…) In addition, I have for instance let a child lay again down and tied up, so that I see, in which way he was swaddled. There I then really saw, where it was gone wrong (…). By misunderstanding however they wanted to bind him straight, but in fact they bind him bent and tighten the bandages hard, so that the child cannot have peace (….).^[11]

In the seventeenth century, the scientific opinion towards swaddling began to change. There was an association of neglect with swaddling, especially regarding wetnurses who would leave babies in their care swaddled for long periods without washing or comforting them.^[12] More than a hundred years after Würtz, physicians and philosophers from England began to openly criticize swaddling and finally demanded its complete abolishment. The British philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) rejected swaddling in his 1693 publication Some Thoughts Concerning Education, becoming a lobbyist for not binding babies at all.^[13] This thought was very controversial during the time, but slowly gained ground, first in England and later elsewhere in Western Europe.

William Cadogan (1711–1797) seems to have been the first physician, who pleaded for the complete abolition of swaddling. In his 'Essay upon Nursing' of 1748, he expressed his view of contemporary child care, swaddling, the topic of too much clothing for infants and overfeeding. He wrote:

But besides the Mischief arising from the Weight and Heat of these Swaddling-cloaths, they are put on so tight, and the Child is so cramp'd by them, that its Bowels have not room, nor the Limbs any Liberty, to act and exert themselves in the free easy Manner they ought. This is a very hurtful Circumstance, for Limbs that are not used, will never be strong, and such tender Bodies cannot bear much Pressure.^[14]

Philosophers and physicians more and more began to reject swaddling in the 18th century. Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote in his book Emile: Or, On Education in 1762:

The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is given new bonds. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move […]. Whence comes this unreasonable custom? From an unnatural practice. Since mothers despise their primary duty and do not wish to nurse their own children, they have had to entrust them to mercenary women. These women thus become mothers to a stranger's children, who by nature mean so little to them that they seek only to spare themselves trouble. A child unswaddled would need constant watching; well swaddled it is cast into a corner and its cries are ignored […]. It is claimed that infants left free would assume faulty positions and make movements which might injure the proper development of their limbs. This is one of the vain rationalizations of our false wisdom which experience has never confirmed. Out of the multitude of children who grow up with the full use of their limbs among nations wiser than ourselves, you never find one who hurts himself or maims himself; their movements are too feeble to be dangerous, and when they assume an injurious position, pain warns them to change it.

Although this form of swaddling has fallen out of favour in the Western world, many Eastern cultures and tribal people still use it.^[15]

Modern swaddling[edit]

The swaddling clothes of medievalMadonna and Child paintings are now replaced with cotton receiving blankets, cotton muslin wraps, or specialised 'winged' baby swaddles. Modern swaddling is becoming increasingly popular today as a means of settling and soothing irritable infants and helping babies sleep longer with fewer awakenings. Since the early 1990s, the medical community has recommended placing babies on their back to sleep to reduce the risk of SIDS. As studies proved swaddled babies sleep better in the back sleeping position, swaddling has become increasingly popular and recommended so parents avoid the dangerous stomach sleeping position. Swaddling also prevents newborns waking themselves with their Moro reflex.^[1]

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Loose and ineffective swaddling techniques made while using an undersized blanket can generally be kicked off by a wakeful baby. It is important for caregivers to accomplish a secure swaddle to ensure the blanket does not become loose and the baby remains wrapped during the sleep period. The act of swaddling does carry a risk of the baby overheating if the caregiver uses multiple blankets that are too thick or uses thick fluffy fabric that creates excessive thermal insulation.^[16]

Modern specialized baby swaddles are designed to make it easier to swaddle a baby than with traditional square blanket. They are typically fabric blankets in a triangle, 'T' or 'Y' shape, with 'wings' that fold around the baby's torso or down over the baby's shoulders and around underneath the infant. Some of these products employ Velcro patches or other fasteners. Some parents prefer a specialized device because of the relative ease of use, and many parents prefer a large square receiving blanket or wrap because they can get a tighter and custom fit and the baby will not outgrow the blanket.

To avoid hip dysplasia risk, the swaddle should be done in such a way that the baby is able to move his or her legs freely at the hip.^[17] This is more easily done with a large blanket that can keep the arms in place while allowing the legs flexibility, all while allowing for proper hip development.

By the time the baby is learning to roll over, often around 4–5 months, parents and caregivers should transition the baby from swaddling to a less restrictive covering for sleep. If the baby can roll over, then it is important for the baby to have use of its hands and arms to adjust his or her head position after rolling over.The traditional swaddling uses flat strings for babies to be tied; care is needed not to tie them too hard or blood flow would be restricted.

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Regional variations[edit]

Swaddling is still practiced worldwide.^[18] In some countries, swaddling is the standard treatment of babies. In Turkey, for instance, 93.1% of all babies become swaddled in the traditional way.^[19] According to the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF), 39% of all documented contemporary non-industrialized cultures show swaddling practices; further 19% use other methods of movement restriction for infants.^[20] Some authors assume that the popularity of swaddling is growing in the U.S., Great Britain and the Netherlands.^[21] A British sample showed up 19.4% of the babies are swaddled at night.^[22] In Germany, swaddling is not used as routine care measure and experiences relatively little acceptance, as the missing mentioning of this practice in the standard work on regulatory disturbances of Papusek shows.^[23]

Medical uses[edit]

Swaddling as a medical intervention with a clearly limited indication range is used in the care practices of premature babies or crybabies with brain-organically provable damage.^[24] Also swaddling is used for reducing pain in such care actions as collecting blood at the heel.^[25] The swaddling of these premature babies (very low birth weight infants) takes place only very loosely. It is meant to hold the weak arms at the body and make certain movements possible.^[26] This 'swaddling' is something completely different from traditional swaddling in the stretched position.

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Psychological and physiological effects[edit]

Modern medical studies of swaddling use a form that is considerably shorter and less severe than the historical forms. The classical study by Lipton et al. of 1965 dealt with a modern swaddling form. The researchers described the two main effects of tightly wrapping babies: they are motorically calm and sleep much.^[27] These effects are detected by means of various psycho-physiological parameters, such as heart rate, sleep duration and duration of crying. The research group around the Dutch biologist van Sleuwen in 2007 confirms this picture in their latest meta-analysis of medical studies on swaddling and its effects.^[28]

However, severe restrictions on the scope of these studies should be kept in mind, because most of the positive effects mentioned by van Sleuwen et al. are not related to normally developed newborns, but to impaired babies, namely premature babies and babies with detectable organic brain damage.^[29]Swaddling enhances the REM sleep (active sleep) and also the whole sleep duration.^[30]The effect of swaddling on the regulatory disturbance excessive crying is not very convincing: By adding the swaddling there is an immediate 'calming' effect on children, but after a few days the effect of the introduction of regularity with swaddling is exactly the same as the regularity on its own.^[31] In other words: after a few days swaddling is completely unnecessary. It is therefore contraindicated to address the potential risk of swaddling, because the effect is only for a short term available, but after a little while is negligible.^[32]

Motor development[edit]

Two studies based on indigenous peoples of the Americas did not show a delay in the onset of walking caused by the restraint of the use of the cradleboard.^[33] In other areas of the motor development, clear delays of the development show up even when mild restrictions take place.^[34] A Japanese study concluded that the application of the basket cradle (ejiko) leads to a delayed onset of walking.^[35] An older Austrian study showed that swaddled Albanian babies showed a delayed ability to crawl and reach things with their hands.^[36] This shows the need for further substantial scientific clarifying regarding the impairment of motor skills by swaddling.

Sudden infant death syndrome[edit]

The effects of swaddling on the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) are unclear.^[37] A 2016 review found tentative evidence that swaddling increases risk of SIDS, especially among babies placed on their stomachs or side while sleeping.^[38]

Swaddling was supposed to keep babies on their back, in order to prevent SIDS. Swaddling itself is not seen as a protective factor for SIDS. Swaddling may even increase the risk when babies sleep in the prone position; it reduces the risk if they sleep in the supine position.^[39] A recent study demonstrated now, that swaddling is apparently a risk factor for SIDS, although the opposite was often previously assumed: Of the babies who died of SIDS, 24% were swaddled; in the control-groups only 6% were swaddled.^[40]

Documented negative effects[edit]

Several empirical studies show evidence of negative effects of swaddling.

• Swaddling, especially traditional forms, increases the risk for hip dysplasia.^{[41][42][43][44][45][46][47]}
• Tight swaddling, particularly where the head is covered, reduces the baby's ability to cool its body temperature which can lead to hyperthermia.^[48] In one case, a heavily wrapped child died of hyperthermia.^[49]
• In one study, the risk of developing respiratory infections increased fourfold by swaddling.^[50]
• A pediatrician found in his sample the flattening of the occipital aspect of the head of babies, who were wrapped tightly and lay in their traditional cradles.^[51]
• Tight chest wrapping or swaddling has been associated with an increased risk of pneumonia. Traditional tight swaddling simulates a strait jacket and prevents baby from moving their arms to self-settle.^{[citation needed]}
• In the most important contemporary study on swaddling practices in maternity wards by Bystrova et al., it is shown that swaddling in the hours after birth is linked with delayed recovery from post-natal weight loss.^[52] A positive effect on the recovery is given by direct skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby in the hours after birth.^[53] Skin-to-skin contact was shown to reduce the impact of the stress of being born, with babies maintaining their body temperature to a greater degree than those swaddled in a nursery.^[54]
• The recent results of an investigation of Bystrova et al. demonstrate that maternal behavior develops less under swaddling conditions, and reciprocity within the mother-child dyad is reduced.^[55]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^ ^abGerard, Claudia M.; Kathleen A. Harris; Bradley T. Thach (6 December 2002). 'Spontaneous Arousals in Supine Infants While Swaddled and Unswaddled During Rapid Eye Movement and Quiet Sleep'. Pediatrics. 110 (6): e70. doi:10.1542/peds.110.6.e70. PMID12456937.
2. ^See Blair et al. (2009).
3. ^hipdysplasia.org.
4. ^Phillips, Eustace Dockray (1965). The royal hordes: Nomad peoples of the steppes. Library of the early civilizations. McGraw-Hill Book Company. p. 15.
5. ^DeMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations. New York: Karnac. p. 328. ISBN978-1-892746-98-6.
6. ^DeMeo, James (2006). Saharasia: The 4000 BCE Origins of Child Abuse, Sex-Repression, Warfare and Social Violence, In the Deserts of the Old World (Revised Second ed.). Natural Energy Works. ISBN978-0-9621855-5-7.
7. ^Thompson, Charles John S. (March 1922). 'Greco-Roman votive offerings for health in the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum'. Health.
8. ^Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995). 'Swaddling'. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (reprint, revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 670. ISBN978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved 2009-12-15.
9. ^Sim, Alison (1998). The Tudor Housewife. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 26. ISBN978-0-7509-3774-0.
10. ^Würtz (1612), p. 726 f.
11. ^Würtz (1612), p. 714 ff.
12. ^DeMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations. Other Press. p. 322. ISBN978-1-892746-98-6.
13. ^Locke (1779), p. 12.
14. ^Cadogan (1748), p. 10.
15. ^ See van Sleuwen, et al. (2007), p. e1097
16. ^van Gestel, Josephus Petrus Johannes; Monique Pauline L’Hoir; Maartje ten Berge; Nicolaas Johannes Georgius Jansen; Frans Berend Plötz (6 December 2002). 'Risks of Ancient Practices in Modern Times'. Pediatrics. 110 (6): e78. doi:10.1542/peds.110.6.e78. PMID12456945.
17. ^'Swaddling your baby'.
18. ^See Frenken (2011 a), p. 321-351, Frenken (2011 b), p. 233 ff..
19. ^See Caglayan et al (1991), p. 117, the statistics are from the Turkish population and health survey (1978), Ankara, p. 78, 82, 114.
20. ^See Nelson et al. (2000), p. e 77.
21. ^See van Sleuwen (2007), p. e1097.
22. ^See Bacon et al. (1991), p. 630.
23. ^See Meyer & Erler (2009), p. 24, also Papusek et al., p. 20, 408.
24. ^Van Sleuwen et al. (2007), p. e1097, e1101, e1102 and e1103.
25. ^See Fearon et al. (1997), p. 222 ff. Swaddling here had a pain reducing effect.
26. ^See Short et al. (1996), p. 25; illustration on p. 27.
27. ^See Lipton, et al. (1965), S. 560 ff.
28. ^See van Sleuwen, et al. (2007), p. e1097.
29. ^See van Sleuwen, et al. (2007), p. e1097, e1101, e1102 and especially p. e1103, where 3 of 5 central and empirically convincing effects are concerned with immature babies!
30. ^Vgl. Franco, et al. (2005), S. 1307 ff.; Chisholm (1983), S. 83
31. ^See van Sleuwen, et al. (2003), (2006) und (2007)
32. ^See Long (2007)
33. ^See Dennis (1940 a), p. 107; Chisholm (1983), p. 83.
34. ^Aldolph et al. (2010), p. 72 ff.
35. ^See Lipton et al (1965), S. 564 mentioning Sofue, T.; Suye, H.; Murakami, T (1957). Anthropological study of Ejiko, Japanese cradle for child. Journal of the anthropological society of Nippon, 66, S. 77-91.
36. ^See Danzinger & Frankl (1934), S. 235; see also Frenken (2011), S. 44 ff.
37. ^Moon RY, Fu L (July 2012). 'Sudden infant death syndrome: an update'. Pediatrics in Review. 33 (7): 314–20. doi:10.1542/pir.33-7-314. PMID22753789. S2CID10784045.
38. ^Pease, A. S.; Fleming, P. J.; Hauck, F. R.; Moon, R. Y.; Horne, R. S. C.; Lhoir, M. P.; Ponsonby, A.-L.; Blair, P. S. (2016). 'Swaddling and the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: A Meta-analysis'. Pediatrics. 137 (6): e20153275. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-3275. PMID27244847.
39. ^See Thach (2009), p. 461, Richardson et al. (2009), p. 475 ff.
40. ^See Blair et al. (2009). In the sample, one quarter of the babies who died of SIDS were swaddled. See also Richardson et al. (2009).
41. ^See Kutlu et al. (1992), p. 598 f.
42. ^Akman et al. (2007), p. 290
43. ^Chaarani et al. (2002)
44. ^Kremli et al. (2003)
45. ^Torjesen, I. (2013). 'Swaddling increases babies' risk of hip abnormalities'. BMJ. 347: f6499. doi:10.1136/bmj.f6499. S2CID72296029.
46. ^Mahan & Kasser (2008)
47. ^Mafart et al. (2007).
48. ^See Bacon et al (1991), p. 627 ff., Cheng & Partridge (1993), p. 238 ff., also van Sleuwen et al. (2007), p. e1101.
49. ^See van Gestel et al. (2002). See also Task Force on Infant Sleep Position and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (2000), p. 654.
50. ^See Yurdakok et al. (1990), p. 878
51. ^See Bloch (1966). p. 645 (Kurdish sample), also Young (2005) for a prehistoric indigenous population.
52. ^See Bystrova et al. (2007 a), p. 29 ff.
53. ^See Bystrova et al. (2007 a), p. 37 f.; also Bystrova et al. (2003), p. 324.
54. ^See also Kennell & MacGrath (2003), p. 273.
55. ^See Bystrova (2008), p. 46.

References[edit]

• Adolph, Karen E.; Karasik (Vishnevetsky), Lana B.; Tamis-LeMonda, Catherine S. (2010). Moving Between Cultures: Cross-Cultural Research on Motor Development. In: Marc H. Bornstein (Hg.). Handbook of cross-cultural developmental science, Vol. 1, Domains of development across cultures. New York. (S. 61-88)
• Akman, Alp; Korkmaz, Ayşe; Aksoy, M. Cemalettin; Yazici, Muharrem; Yurdakök, Murat, Tekinalp, Gülsevin (2007). Evaluation of risk factors in developmental dysplasia of the hip: results of infantile hip ultrasonography. In: The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics, 49, S. 290–294.
• Bacon, C. J.; Bell, S. A.; Clulow, E E; Beattie, A. B. (1991). How mothers keep their babies warm. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 66, S. 627–632.
• Blair, Peter S.; Sidebotham, Peter; Evason-Coombe, Carol; Edmonds, Margaret; Fleming, Peter. (2009). Hazardous cosleeping environments and risk factors amenable to change: case-control study of SIDS in south west England. British Medical Journal, 339, b3666.
• BMJ 2009;339:b3666 doi:10.1136/bmj.b3666 yo
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External links[edit]

• 18th Century Baby Swaddling Photo Series, Sharon Ann Burnston